Medicolegal Pitfalls :

• Some patients may not have the classic presentation of abruption, especially with posterior implantation.
• Consider a diagnosis of placental abruption for every patient in premature labor. Carefully monitor patients to exclude or establish this diagnosis.
• Absence of vaginal bleeding does not exclude placental abruption.
• DIC/coagulopathy may occur even if clotting factors initially are within reference ranges. Continue to monitor clotting factors.
• Normal ultrasound findings do not exclude placental abruption.

Complications :

Maternal complications :

• Hemorrhagic shock
• Coagulopathy/DIC
• Uterine rupture
• Renal failure
• Ischemic necrosis of distal organs (eg, hepatic, adrenal, pituitary)

Fetal complications :

• Hypoxia
• Anemia
• Growth retardation
• CNS anomalies
• Fetal death

Deterrence/Prevention

• Treat maternal hypertension.
• Prevent maternal trauma/domestic violence.
• Prevent smoking and substance abuse.
• Diagnose placental abruption at an early stage in high-risk groups (eg, maternal hypertension, maternal trauma, association with domestic violence, smoking habit, substance abuse, advanced maternal age, premature ruptured membranes, uterine fibromyomas, amniocentesis).

Treatment :

Prehospital Care :

Provide emergency care at the advanced life support (ALS) level to all patients with suspected placental abruption. This care includes the following:

• Continuous monitoring of vital signs
• Continuous high-flow supplemental oxygen
• One or 2 large-bore IV lines with normal saline (NS) or lactated Ringer (LR) solution
• Monitoring amount of vaginal bleeding
• Monitoring of fetal heart
• Treatment of hemorrhagic shock, if needed

Emergency Department Care :

ED care depends on stage of gestation and severity of symptoms.

• Closely observe the patient.
• Administer supplemental oxygen.
• Continuous fetal monitoring.
• Administer IV fluids.
• Perform aggressive fluid resuscitation to maintain adequate perfusion, if needed.
• Monitor vital signs and urine output.
• Crossmatch 4 units of packed red blood cells. Transfuse, if necessary.
• Perform amniotomy to decrease intrauterine pressure, extravasation of blood into the myometrium, and entry of thromboplastic substances into the circulation.
• Immediately deliver the fetus by cesarean delivery if the mother or fetus becomes unstable.
• Treatment of coagulopathy or disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) may be necessary. Some degree of coagulopathy occurs in about 30% of severe cases of placental abruption. The best treatment for DIC as a complication of placental abruption is immediate delivery.

Consultations :

Consult an obstetrician as soon as possible.

Imaging Studies

Ultrasonography helps determine the location of the placenta to exclude placenta previa.Ultrasonography is not very useful in diagnosing placental abruption.

• Retroplacental hematoma may be recognized in 2-25% of all abruptions.
• Recognition of retroplacental hematoma depends on the degree of hematoma and on the operator's skill level.
  
  

Laboratory Studies :

• Hemoglobin
  

• Hematocrit
  

• Platelets
  

• Prothrombin time/activated partial thromboplastin time
  

• Fibrinogen
  

• Fibrin/fibrinogen degradation products
  

• D-dimer
  

• Blood type
  
  

Clinical Diagnosis :

Placental abruption is mainly a clinical diagnosis based on findings of vaginal bleeding, abdominal pain, uterine tenderness, uterine contractions, and fetal distress.

Classification of placental abruption is based on extent of separation (ie, partial vs complete) and location of separation (ie, marginal vs central). Clinical characteristics include the following:

• Class 0: asymptomatic. Diagnosis is made retrospectively by finding an organized blood clot or a depressed area on a delivered placenta.

• Class 1: mild and represents approximately 48% of all cases. Characteristics include the following:
  No vaginal bleeding to mild vaginal bleeding
  Slightly tender uterus
  Normal maternal BP and heart rate
  No coagulopathy
  No fetal distress
  

• Class 2: moderate and represents approximately 27% of all cases. Characteristics include the following:
  No vaginal bleeding to moderate vaginal bleeding
  Moderate-to-severe uterine tenderness with possible tetanic contractions
  Maternal tachycardia with orthostatic changes in BP and heart rate
  Fetal distress
  Hypofibrinogenemia (ie, 50-250 mg/dL)
  

• Class 3: severe and represents approximately 24% of all cases. Characteristics include the following:
  No vaginal bleeding to heavy vaginal bleeding
  Very painful tetanic uterus
  Maternal shock
  Hypofibrinogenemia (ie, <150 mg/dL)
  Coagulopathy
  Fetal death